Living Mountains: How and Why Volcanoes Erupt
Table of Contents
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CONSTRUCTING VOLCANOES
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1
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Simple and Complex Volcanoes
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1
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Lavas
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2
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Fluid Lavas: Flows and Lava Lakes
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3
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Pahoehoe Flows, 'A'a Flows, and Ropy Lavas
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3
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Lava Tunnels
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4
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Columnar Jointing
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5
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Viscous Lavas: Domes and Petaloid Flows
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8
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Simple Domes, Complex Domes, and Cryptodomes
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9
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Prismatic Columns in Viscous Lava
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11
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Volcanic Ejecta
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11
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Bombs, Lapilli, and Ash
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11
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Inclusions and Xenoliths
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12
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Pyroclastic Formations
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12
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Ignimbrites
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14
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Why Explosive Eruptions Occur
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15
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Volcanic Gases
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15
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Gas Expansion
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16
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Strombolian Eruptions and Lava Fountains
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17
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Plinian Eruptions
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20
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Pelean Eruptions
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20
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Surges
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23
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When Rising Magma Meets Groundwater
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23
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Carbonic Eruptions
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26
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Percolation of Carbon Dioxide through Earth's Crust
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26
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Disruption of Deep Aquifer Layers
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26
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Overturn of Water in Crater Lakes
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27
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The Effects of Volcanic Eruptions on Climate
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28
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Repose Period of a Volcano and Fumarolic Activity
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29
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Submarine Volcanoes: Eruptions beneath the Sea
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29
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Hyaloclastites
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30
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Pillow Lavas and Lava Ponds
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30
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Black Smokers
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33
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Volcanic Collapse
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34
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Lahars
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34
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Flank Slides
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35
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Calderas
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36
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WHERE MAGMA ORIGINATES
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38
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The Earth's Concentric Structure
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38
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Partial Melting of Rocks
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40
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Migration of a Melt
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42
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Formation of Magma Chambers
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42
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The Conditions of Partial Melting
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43
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Mantle Convection and Plate Tectonics
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44
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Seafloor Spreading
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45
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Subduction
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47
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Mantle Upwelling: Partial Melting due to Reduced Pressure
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47
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Formation of the Oceanic Crust
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48
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Hot Spot Volcanism
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49
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Subduction: Partial Melting due to the Addition of Water
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51
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Magma Pooling: Partial Melting due to Increased Temperature
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53
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VOLCANIC ROCK DIVERSITY
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55
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Cooling History
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55
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Obsidian
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56
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Microlitic and Doleritic Textures
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57
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Aphyric versus Porphyritic Texture
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58
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Chemical Diversity
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59
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Differences in Source Material and Degree of Partial Melting
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60
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Magma Mixing and Contamination
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61
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Bimodal Volcanism
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61
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Magma Mixing or Hybridization
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61
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Contamination
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62
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Magmatic Differentiation by Fractional Crystallization
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62
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Crystallization in a Magma Chamber
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64
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Unraveling a Lava's History
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67
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Trace Elements
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67
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Isotopic Ratios
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69
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DATING VOLCANIC EVENTS
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72
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History
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72
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Relative Chronology
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73
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Absolute Chronology
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74
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Carbon-14 Dating
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74
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Potassium-Argon Dating
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75
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Thermoluminescence
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76
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PREDICTING VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
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78
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Estimating the Threat
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78
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Precursors of Eruptions
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79
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Seismic Precursors
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79
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Inflation of Volcanoes
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80
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Tilt Meters
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80
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Displacement Meters
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80
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Electronic Distance Meters
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81
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Spatial Altimetry
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81
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Thermal and Chemical Precursors
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82
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Magnetic Precursors
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83
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Volcano Surveillance Networks
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83
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Glossary
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89
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Index
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95
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